A.47 — Environmental Issues | Part-1: Desertification

1. Desertification: Basic Concept

Desertification does not mean merely the transformation of any area into a desert. Its broader meaning is—land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas due to various factors including climate variability and human activities.

2. Desertification from UNCCD Perspective

The most important global policy-level institution on desertification is: UNCCD — United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification; Hindi: संयुक्त राष्ट्र मरुस्थलीकरण-रोधी अभिसमय

Its main focus is:

• Combating desertification
• Preventing land degradation
• Mitigating the effects of drought
• Restoring land productivity and ecological condition in affected areas

Most Important: UNCCD establishment/adoption — 1994; Convention came into force — 26 December 1996; Headquarters — Bonn, Germany

Fact Trap: It is wrong to understand UNCCD as merely a "treaty to save deserts". Its focus is land degradation, desertification and drought.

3. Major Causes of Desertification

A. Natural Causes:

1. Long-term deficiency of rainfall
2. Extreme irregularity of rainfall
3. Long-term drought
4. Strong winds
5. High evaporation
6. Increase in temperature
7. Lack of natural vegetation
8. Change in water availability

B. Anthropogenic Causes:

1. Overgrazing: When the number of animals exceeds the carrying capacity of land, the capacity for vegetation regeneration decreases.

2. Deforestation: Removing trees and plants can increase surface runoff, increase wind erosion, and reduce organic matter. But here only the connection of deforestation with desertification will be taken; detailed study of deforestation will be done separately in the next part.

3. Unstable Agriculture: Agricultural use beyond land capacity can lead to loss of soil nutrients, reduction in organic matter, decline in structure, and reduction in productivity.

4. Improper Irrigation: A major consequence of excessive or poorly drained irrigation in arid areas can be Soil Salinization. When irrigation water evaporates, dissolved salts can accumulate in the upper layer of the soil.

4. Major Processes of Desertification

A. Water Erosion: Removal of topsoil by rain/flowing water. Flow → Separation of soil particles → Transport → Deposition

B. Wind Erosion: Loose soil particles being blown by strong winds, transported, deposited elsewhere. This is especially important in arid and semi-arid regions.

C. Salinization: Increase in the amount of soluble salts in the soil. Important causes: excessive irrigation + poor drainage + high evaporation.

D. Alkalization: Excess of exchangeable sodium in the soil can affect soil structure and water infiltration capacity.

Trap: Salinization and alkalization are not the same process.

5. Vicious Cycle of Desertification

Remember this as a conceptual chain for RPSC:

Decrease in vegetation cover → Soil exposed → Erosion increased → Loss of top fertile layer → Reduction in soil productivity → Reduction in vegetation regeneration → Increase in land degradation

This can be understood as a Desertification Feedback Cycle.

6. Major Effects of Desertification

Environmental:

• Reduction in soil productivity
• Loss of biodiversity
• Habitat degradation
• Reduction in ecosystem services
• Increase in dust/dust storm events
• Pressure on water resources

Economic:

• Reduction in agricultural production
• Reduction in livestock productivity
• Impact on rural livelihoods
• Reduction in economic utility of land

Social:

• Food insecurity
• Water crisis
• Livelihood crisis
• Pressure of rural-urban migration

7. Desertification and Drought: Important Difference

Remember: Drought ≠ Desertification

8. Major Global Regions Affected by Desertification

Desertification is especially a serious problem in areas where:

• Climate is arid or semi-arid
• Rainfall is uncertain
• Pressure of animal husbandry is high
• Human pressure on land is high
• Irrigation management is weak

Major Regions:

Africa:

• Sahel region
• Arid regions of North Africa

Asia:

• Central Asia
• Western Asia
• Arid regions of China
• Arid/semi-arid regions of the Indian subcontinent

Australia:

• Interior arid regions

America:

• South-Western USA
• Arid regions of Mexico

9. Sahel Region — Important RAS Facts

Sahel is a transition zone located to the south of the Sahara Desert. It is understood as a transition zone between the Sahara Desert ↔ more humid tropical Africa.

In the context of desertification, the Sahel is important because here:

• Rainfall is highly variable
• Drought events are significant
• There can be pressure of grazing
• There is risk of land degradation

10. Land Degradation Neutrality — LDN

LDN — Land Degradation Neutrality

Its basic idea is: Whatever land degradation occurs, an equal amount of land quality/productivity should be maintained/restored through conservation, restoration or rehabilitation.

This is not merely the goal of "no land becoming degraded", but the concept of preventing net decline in the overall condition of land resources.

RAS Angle: LDN → UNCCD → Sustainable Development Goal 15.3; The goal of SDG 15.3 is to combat land degradation and work towards Land Degradation Neutrality by 2030.

11. Major Measures to Prevent Desertification

Biological Measures:

• Afforestation
• Grassland restoration
• Conservation of native vegetation
• Shelterbelts
• Agroforestry

Soil Conservation:

• Contour farming
• Terracing
• Mulching
• Conservation agriculture
• Windbreaks

Water Management:

• Rainwater harvesting
• Micro irrigation
• Proper drainage
• Controlled use of groundwater

Grazing Land Management:

• Controlled grazing
• Rotational grazing
• Livestock pressure according to carrying capacity

Policy-Based:

• Land use planning
• Drought early warning system
• Land restoration
• Participation of local communities
• LDN-based planning

12. Desertification in India — Main Context

The study of desertification/land degradation in India should not be limited only to the Thar Desert.

Important Processes:

• Water erosion
• Wind erosion
• Vegetation degradation
• Salinization
• Waterlogging
• Land use change
• Anthropogenic pressure

Rajasthan Connection: In Rajasthan, especially wind erosion + water scarcity + overgrazing + land use pressure are important factors related to the problem of desertification. But: The entire state of Rajasthan is not uniformly desertified—regional variation is extremely important.

13. A Most Important Strategy to Prevent Desertification

Great Green Wall: In Africa, the objective of the Great Green Wall initiative is to promote large-scale land restoration to deal with land degradation, desertification and ecological/livelihood crisis in the Sahel and associated regions.

RPSC Trap: It is not correct to understand it as merely "a continuous wall of trees". It is a broader land restoration landscape approach.

14. Most Important Fact Cluster

15. Possible RPSC Fact Traps

1. Desertification = Formation of new desert
2. Drought and desertification are the same
3. UNCCD's main subject is only forest conservation
4. Sahel = Sahara Desert
5. Salinization = Alkalization
6. Desertification is only a natural process
7. Desertification is only a problem of Africa
8. LDN means completely zeroing land degradation
9. Excessive irrigation always improves land
10. Great Green Wall is only a narrow strip of trees

16. One-Liner Revision Bank

1. UNCCD is related to — desertification, land degradation and drought.
2. UNCCD — adopted in 1994.
3. UNCCD — in force from 26 December 1996.
4. UNCCD Headquarters — Bonn.
5. Core area of desertification — arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas.
6. Overgrazing — an important anthropogenic cause of desertification.
7. Improper irrigation — can increase salinization.
8. Sahel — transition zone south of Sahara.
9. LDN — Land Degradation Neutrality.
10. SDG 15.3 — related to Land Degradation Neutrality.
11. Drought and desertification — interrelated but not the same.
12. Wind erosion — important land degradation process in arid areas.
13. Desertification — not merely natural desert expansion.
14. Great Green Wall — broad land restoration initiative in the Sahel region.

A.47 — Environmental Issues | Part-2: Deforestation

1. What is Deforestation?

Deforestation means such a permanent reduction in forest area in which forest land use changes to some other land use or the nature of the forest is permanently destroyed.

Main Concept: Deforestation = Forest → Non-forest land-use conversion

Examples: Agricultural land, pasture, mining area, road/rail, dam/reservoir, urban area, industrial area.

2. Major Types of Deforestation

1. Permanent Land-Use Change: Converting forest area into agriculture, roads, industry, housing, etc.
2. Temporary Forest Cover Loss: Forest cover being removed for some reason but later forest developing again.
3. Fragmented Deforestation: Forest being removed in small parts within a large forest area.
4. Frontier Deforestation: Forest being removed with the expansion of agriculture, infrastructure or resource exploitation in new areas.

3. Major Direct Causes of Deforestation

A. Agricultural Expansion: In many forest areas of the world, forests are cleared for the expansion of agricultural land. Especially: commercial agriculture, animal husbandry, crops like soybean, Palm Oil production, small farmers' agriculture, some forms of shifting cultivation.

B. Animal Husbandry: Especially in tropical regions, large-scale cattle ranching can be an important cause of forest area conversion. Especially the Amazon Basin is important in this context.

C. Mining: In forest areas, extraction of iron ore, bauxite, gold, coal, other minerals can cause direct and indirect forest loss. Along with mining, construction of roads and other infrastructure can affect additional forest areas.

D. Infrastructure: Roads, railways, dams, power lines, pipelines, ports, industrial areas can increase forest fragmentation and land-use change.

E. Timber Extraction: Commercial logging and excessive use of wood for fuel can put pressure on forest resources.

4. Indirect Causes

Deforestation is not always the result of only the direct decision to cut trees. Important indirect factors: population and land demand, global commodity markets, demand for agricultural products, poverty and livelihood pressure, weak land-rights system, illegal logging, weak governance, access to new areas after road construction, land use policy, international trade.

5. The Most Important Global Region of Deforestation — Amazon Basin

The Amazon is one of the most important tropical forest regions in the world.

Major pressures of deforestation:

• Animal husbandry
• Agricultural expansion
• Soybean production
• Road construction
• Mining
• Illegal logging

Most Important: Deforestation of the Amazon is not a subject limited only to Brazil. The Amazon Basin is spread across many South American countries.

6. Congo Basin

Africa's Congo Basin is also included in the world's major tropical forest regions.

Causes of pressure on forests can include: fuelwood, agricultural expansion, timber extraction, mining, road/infrastructure.

RPSC Trap: Amazon → South America; Congo Basin → Africa

7. Southeast Asia

Major pressures related to forest loss in Southeast Asia: palm oil agriculture, rubber, timber, agricultural expansion, mining, infrastructure. Especially Indonesia and Malaysia are important in questions related to forests and palm oil.

8. Impact of Deforestation on Carbon Cycle

Forests are often seen as Carbon Sink.

Forest: Absorbs CO2 → Stores carbon in organic matter

When forests are destroyed: Carbon storage capacity ↓ and some part of the carbon stored in vegetation/soil can go into the atmosphere as CO2.

From this, a relationship is formed with: Greenhouse effect → Global warming → Climate change.

But note: Global warming and deforestation are not the same concepts.

9. Deforestation and Biodiversity

One of the most important ecological effects of deforestation is: Habitat Loss

When forest habitat is destroyed:

• Habitat of species decreases
• Population can be divided into different groups
• Risk of local extinction can increase
• Biodiversity is affected

10. Forest Fragmentation

Fragmentation: When a large continuous forest area breaks into small separate parts.

Example: Road → Forest into two parts → Further agriculture/settlements → Small forest patches

Its impact:

• Movement of wildlife affected
• Reduction in gene flow
• Small habitat patches
• Increased reach of external influences

11. Edge Effect

Edge Effect: When the interior part of the forest starts getting more affected by the external environment because the forest edge increases.

At the edge: Change in temperature, change in light availability, change in humidity, effect of wind, entry of external species can occur.

Relationship: Fragmentation ↑ → Edge ↑ → Interior habitat ↓

This is a very important conceptual MCQ.

12. Deforestation and Water Cycle

The role of forests is not limited to carbon only.

Forests play a role in: Evapotranspiration, rainfall generation/recycling, water absorption, groundwater recharge, surface runoff control.

Large-scale forest change can affect local and regional water cycles.

13. Deforestation and Soil

When forest cover is removed: Soil conservation capacity ↓

As a result, in some situations: Soil erosion, loss of nutrients, surface runoff, increase in sediment can occur.

14. Deforestation and Local Climate

When forests are removed: Surface energy balance can change, evapotranspiration can decrease, local thermal conditions can change, rainfall recycling can be affected.

Therefore, forests are not just a "group of trees" but a climate-regulating ecosystem.

15. Why are Tropical Forests Especially Important?

Tropical forests have: high biodiversity, high productivity, large number of endemic species, important carbon storage, complex food webs.

For this reason, the impact of tropical forest loss can be not only local but global.

16. Deforestation and Indigenous Communities

In many forest areas of the world, the livelihood of Indigenous/local communities is linked to forest resources.

Due to forest loss: Food sources, medicinal resources, fuel, cultural sites, traditional livelihoods can be affected.

17. Major Strategies to Prevent Deforestation

1. Protected Areas: Expansion and effective management of protected areas.
2. Sustainable Forest Management: Such use of forest resources in which long-term ecological capacity remains.
3. Community Forest Management: Participation of local communities.
4. Agroforestry: Combined management of agriculture + trees.
5. Reforestation: Re-establishing forest in deforested/formerly forested areas.
6. Afforestation: Establishing forest in new areas.
7. Monitoring: Monitoring of forest-cover change through Satellite/Remote Sensing.
8. Supply-chain interventions: Developing such agricultural and trade chains that reduce unnecessary forest conversion for commodity production.

18. REDD+ — Most Important

REDD+: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

Meaning: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.

It is a forest-based mechanism related to climate change under UNFCCC.

Its broader framework includes elements like: deforestation, forest degradation, conservation, sustainable management of forests, enhancement of forest carbon stocks.

19. Deforestation vs Afforestation vs Reforestation

Most Important Trap: Afforestation ≠ Reforestation

20. Remote Sensing in Forest Monitoring

In modern forest monitoring, use of: satellite imagery, Remote Sensing, GIS, time-series analysis is done.

Through these: forest-cover change, fragmentation, fire scars, canopy change, land-use conversion can be studied.

21. India Connection

The most important institution for forest-related assessment in India: Forest Survey of India — FSI

It is located in Dehradun and works related to assessment of the country's forest cover/tree cover etc.

22. Rajasthan Connection

While understanding deforestation in Rajasthan, not only "cutting of dense forests" but aspects like: land use change, fuel and fodder pressure, mining, infrastructure, grazing pressure, forest fire, local ecological conditions should be seen.

Here forest resources, pastures, land degradation and desert ecology are interconnected subjects, but their facts will be kept separately.

23. Important International Initiatives

Trap: UNCCD = Not Forest Convention.

24. High-Value Fact Cluster

25. RPSC Fact Traps

1. Every tree cutting = Deforestation
2. Deforestation occurs only from logging
3. Amazon is only in Brazil
4. Congo Basin is in South America
5. Afforestation and Reforestation are the same
6. REDD+ is only an afforestation programme
7. Forest degradation and deforestation are the same
8. Fragmentation increases forest interior
9. Edge effect occurs only in agricultural areas
10. The importance of forests is limited only to timber production
11. Deforestation has no relation to climate
12. Forest cover and tree cover are the same concepts

26. One-Liner Revision Bank

1. The basic meaning of deforestation is permanent/long-term conversion or loss of forest land.
2. In forest degradation, the forest may remain, but its quality decreases.
3. Agricultural expansion is the major land-use driver of deforestation.
4. The Amazon Basin is in South America.
5. Congo Basin is in Africa.
6. In Southeast Asia, palm oil is important in questions related to forest-land conversion.
7. Forest fragmentation divides a large forest into small patches.
8. Fragmentation can increase edge effect.
9. Forests play an important role in carbon storage.
10. Forests contribute to the water cycle through evapotranspiration.
11. REDD+ is related to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
12. Afforestation and Reforestation are different concepts.
13. Remote sensing is an important modern tool for monitoring forest change.
14. In India, Forest Survey of India is an important institution for forest-related assessment.
15. Forest Cover and Tree Cover should not be considered the same.
16. SDG 15 is related to Life on Land.
17. SDG 15.2 is specifically related to sustainable forest management and deforestation.

A.47 — Environmental Issues | Part-3: Climate Change

1. What is Climate Change?

Climate change means significant change in the average condition of the Earth's climate or its variability over a long period.

This change can affect: average temperature, distribution of rainfall, monsoon patterns, snow and ice, sea level, ocean temperature, extreme weather events, ecosystems.

RAS Trap: High temperature of one day = not by itself proof of climate change.

2. Two Broad Causes of Climate Change

A. Natural Factors: Earth's climate has been changing naturally as well. Major factors: volcanic activity, change in solar radiation, change in Earth's orbital characteristics, change in ocean circulation, natural climate oscillations.

Milankovitch Cycles: Long-term changes related to Earth's orbit and rotation axis: 1. Eccentricity; 2. Obliquity; 3. Precession. These are related to long-term climate change.

3. Anthropogenic Climate Change

In modern climate change, the role of human activities has been considered extremely important scientifically. According to IPCC, human-induced climate change is related to cumulative greenhouse gas emissions over more than a century, including energy, land use, production and consumption systems.

Main Sources: Fossil fuels, electricity generation, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture, land use change, waste.

4. Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Effect: Some gases in the atmosphere absorb part of the long-wave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-radiate it. Due to this, the Earth's surface temperature remains in a range suitable for life.

Natural Greenhouse Effect: This is a natural process necessary for life.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: When the concentration of GHGs increases due to human activities, the natural greenhouse effect becomes stronger and the Earth's average temperature increases.

Important: Greenhouse Effect itself is not an environmental problem; its human-induced intensification is the problem.

5. Major Greenhouse Gases

Water Vapour: Water vapour is also a powerful greenhouse gas, but it is not considered the primary direct driver of current anthropogenic warming because its atmospheric amount changes as a feedback with temperature.

6. Why is CO2 Most Important?

Reasons: Large-scale emissions from human activities, impact on climate system for a long period, main product of fossil fuel combustion, oceans and terrestrial ecosystems absorb it, atmospheric concentration has continuously increased.

According to WMO's 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, in 2024 the global average CO2 concentration was 423.9 ± 0.2 ppm, which was about 52% higher than the pre-industrial level. CH4 was 1942 ± 2 ppb and N2O was 338.0 ± 0.1 ppb.

7. Radiative Forcing

Radiative Forcing: It is a concept to understand the change in the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth's energy system due to some factor.

Simple Form: Positive forcing → warming tendency; Negative forcing → cooling tendency; Increase in greenhouse gases generally creates positive radiative forcing.

8. Climate Feedback

In the climate system, an initial change gives rise to another change, which can increase or decrease the original change.

Positive Feedback: Increases the original warming. Example: Ice ↓ → Albedo ↓ → Solar absorption ↑ → Warming ↑

Negative Feedback: Reduces the original change to some extent.

9. Albedo

Albedo: A concept related to how much of the solar radiation received by a surface is reflected.

High Albedo: Bright surfaces like snow/ice → more reflection

Low Albedo: Dark coloured surfaces → more absorption

Ice-Albedo Feedback: Warming → Ice/Snow ↓ → Albedo ↓ → Absorption ↑ → Further Warming; This is an important positive feedback.

10. Oceans and Climate Change

Oceans play an extremely important role in the climate system: they absorb large amounts of heat, absorb CO2, influence climate, play a role in sea-level change.

According to WMO's State of the Global Climate 2025 report, by 2025, 2015–2025 remained the group of 11 hottest years on record and 2025 was about 1.43°C above the 1850–1900 average; 2025 was the second or third hottest year.

11. Ocean Heat Content

Oceans absorb a large amount of the extra heat of climate change. According to WMO, in 2024 ocean heat content was at a record level, and ocean warming continued in 2025 as well.

12. Sea-Level Rise

Two major physical causes of sea-level rise due to climate change:

1. Thermal Expansion: Seawater expands when heated.
2. Land Ice Melt: Melting of land glaciers and ice sheets adds extra water to the sea.

Important Trap: Melting of sea ice and melting of land ice are not the same.

13. Cryosphere

Cryosphere: Those parts of the Earth where water is found in solid state. It includes: glaciers, ice sheets, sea ice, snow cover, permafrost, other frozen water.

Changes in the cryosphere due to climate change are linked to climate feedback and sea-level etc.

14. Permafrost

Permafrost: Such land that remains continuously frozen for at least a long-term period.

Its melting can have effects like: land instability, infrastructure damage, release of stored carbon.

15. Major Effects of Climate Change

Physical: Temperature increase, retreat of glaciers, sea-level rise, increase in ocean heat, change in rainfall patterns

Extreme Events: According to IPCC, climate change has changed the frequency/intensity of events like heat extremes, heavy precipitation, drought and fire weather in many regions.

Biological: Change in species distribution, coral bleaching, ecosystem stress, phenological changes, extinction risk

Social: Food security, water security, health, livelihood, displacement, economic loss

16. Climate Change and Biodiversity

Due to changes in temperature and rainfall, species may have to shift: towards higher latitudes, towards higher altitudes, towards deeper areas in the sea.

According to IPCC, the limits of adaptation capacity of many species are coming to the fore and changes in species distribution and biological timing are being seen due to climate change.

17. Climate Change and Health

Major Effects: Heat stress, Heat-related mortality, changing distribution of vector-borne diseases, risk of water-borne diseases, malnutrition, effects on mental health.

18. Climate Change and Food Security

Climate change can affect agriculture through: Temperature + Rainfall + Extreme Events.

Possible Consequences: crop yield variability, drought losses, heat stress, pest/disease pressure, livestock stress, food price instability.

19. Adaptation and Mitigation

This is the most important difference in RAS.

Mitigation: Reducing the cause of climate change.

Examples: Reducing GHG emissions, renewable energy, energy efficiency, electric mobility, increasing carbon sinks.

IPCC defines mitigation as actions that limit GHG emissions or remove GHGs from the atmosphere.

Adaptation: Adjusting oneself according to the effects of climate change.

Examples: drought-resistant crops, flood protection, heat action plans, water conservation, climate-resilient infrastructure.

Remember: Mitigation → Works on Cause; Adaptation → Works on Impact.

20. Loss and Damage

When the loss caused by the effects of climate change cannot be adequately avoided or reduced by adaptation alone, the concept of Loss and Damage becomes important. It can include subjects like: economic loss, non-economic loss, extreme events, slow-onset events.

21. Climate Justice

All countries' historical contribution, current emissions, economic capacity, climate vulnerability are not the same. From this, the concepts of Climate Justice and Equity emerge.

22. UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFCCC is the global international framework on climate change. It was adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Effective — 21 March 1994.

Its main objective is to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at such a level that dangerous anthropogenic interference in the climate system is prevented.

23. Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol: Adoption — 1997; Place — Kyoto, Japan; Effective — 2005.

It mainly created a framework of legally binding emission reduction commitments for developed countries.

RAS Trap: Kyoto Protocol = Not Paris Agreement.

24. Paris Agreement

Adoption: 12 December 2015; Place: Paris, France; Effective: 4 November 2016.

Paris Agreement's temperature goal: To keep the global average temperature increase well below 2°C from pre-industrial level and to make efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.

According to UNFCCC, as of 27 January 2026, there were 194 Parties to the Paris Agreement.

25. NDC

Nationally Determined Contributions: Each country presents its climate actions/targets through NDC under the Paris Agreement. It can include: national efforts related to emission reduction, adaptation, climate action.

Important: NDC = Each country's nationally determined climate action framework.

26. Global Stocktake

The process of assessing collective progress towards the Paris Agreement.

Objective: To see where the world has reached in terms of: Paris temperature goals, mitigation, adaptation, finance etc.

27. IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: It assesses scientific literature on climate change related to: scientific assessment, impacts, risks, adaptation, mitigation.

AR6: IPCC Sixth Assessment Report's three main Working Groups: WG-I → Physical Science Basis; WG-II → Impacts, Adaptation & Vulnerability; WG-III → Mitigation. After this: AR6 Synthesis Report — 2023 was released.

28. WMO

World Meteorological Organization: A most important global institution in climate monitoring.

Its major report: State of the Global Climate. WMO has been publishing annual statements on the state of the global climate since 1993.

29. Latest Important Climate Facts

2024 GHG concentration: According to WMO's 2025 Bulletin: CO2 — 423.9 ± 0.2 ppm; CH4 — 1942 ± 2 ppb; N2O — 338.0 ± 0.1 ppb. All three recorded record high global average levels in 2024.

2025 temperature: According to WMO's 2025 assessment: 2015–2025 = 11 hottest years on record; 2025 = second or third hottest year; about 1.43°C above 1850–1900.

30. RAS Fact-Traps

1. Climate Change = Only Global Warming
2. Weather and Climate are the same
3. Natural greenhouse effect is harmful
4. Water vapour is the primary anthropogenic driver of modern warming
5. Mitigation and Adaptation are the same
6. Paris Agreement happened in 1997
7. Kyoto Protocol happened in 2015
8. IPCC is a treaty-making body
9. NDC is the same numerical target for all countries
10. Sea ice and land ice are the same
11. Ocean remains unaffected by climate change
12. Global warming is only a matter of atmospheric temperature
13. Climate change is happening only due to natural causes
14. Radiative forcing always produces cooling
15. Adaptation means reducing GHG emissions

31. Super-Fast Revision

A.47 — Environmental Issues | Part-4: Global Warming

1. What is Global Warming?

Global warming means the increase in the long-term average temperature of the Earth's surface and nearby atmosphere.

In simple form: Greenhouse gases ↑ → Imbalance in Earth's energy system → Average temperature ↑

Important: Global warming is a major component of climate change; both are not completely synonymous terms.

2. Earth's Energy Balance

The Earth continuously receives energy from the Sun and sends energy back to space.

Normal Sequence: Solar radiation → Earth surface absorption → Long-wave radiation → Atmosphere → Space

If the long-term balance between incoming and outgoing energy changes and extra energy accumulates in the system, then warming occurs.

3. Shortwave and Longwave Radiation

Shortwave radiation: Radiation mainly coming from the Sun towards the Earth.

Longwave radiation: Thermal radiation re-emitted by the Earth's surface after absorbing energy.

Greenhouse gases interact significantly with the Earth's outgoing longwave radiation.

RPSC Trap: Greenhouse gases are not a "shield" that directly stops all incoming solar energy.

4. Anthropogenic Warming

Modern warming due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations from human activities is called anthropogenic warming.

Major Contributions: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, industrial processes, agriculture, land use change.

5. Relationship of Major GHGs with Warming

CO2: Major sources: coal combustion, oil, natural gas, cement production, land-use change

Methane — CH4: Sources: animal husbandry, rice cultivation, landfill, oil & gas operations, coal mining

Nitrous Oxide — N2O: Mainly: agricultural land, nitrogen fertilizers, industrial processes

Fluorinated gases: Mainly: refrigeration, air-conditioning, industrial applications

6. Global Warming Potential — GWP

GWP — Global Warming Potential: A measure to compare the warming capacity of any greenhouse gas with CO2.

CO2 is generally taken as the reference gas.

Most Important: Higher GWP → higher warming impact for the same mass, but to understand the actual climate impact, the atmospheric lifetime and emission quantity of the gas are also important.

7. Atmospheric Lifetime

The time a gas remains in the atmosphere is important in understanding climate impact.

Therefore: Short-lived climate pollutant ≠ Long-lived greenhouse gas; their mitigation strategies can be different.

8. Carbon Budget

Carbon Budget: The limited amount of total cumulative CO2 emissions to stay within a specified warming limit is understood through the concept of carbon budget.

Important Principle: Cumulative CO2 emissions ↑ → warming ↑; Therefore, looking at emissions of only one year is not enough.

9. Net Zero

Net Zero: Achieving a net balance between human-induced greenhouse gas emissions and removals.

Simple Form: Gross emissions – removals ≈ 0

Trap: Net Zero = Not Zero emissions. Net zero does not necessarily mean making all emissions absolutely zero; remaining emissions can be balanced by removals.

10. Carbon Sink

Carbon Sink: Such a natural or artificial system that takes more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases and does net carbon uptake.

Major natural carbon sinks: oceans, terrestrial ecosystems.

Carbon Source: A system that does net carbon release. The balance of Sink ↔ Source is important for the carbon cycle.

11. Global Mean Surface Temperature

In climate science, the temperature of only one city or country is not considered. Global Mean Surface Temperature (GMST) is the major indicator of global average surface temperature change.

Temperature anomaly is often expressed relative to some baseline period.

RPSC Trap: "Today's temperature is 40°C" and "global warming is 1.5°C"—both are different types of temperature statements.

12. Pre-industrial Baseline

In climate policy, warming is often expressed by comparing with a pre-industrial reference period like 1850–1900. Paris temperature goals use this type of pre-industrial reference.

13. 1.5°C and 2°C

It is extremely important to understand global warming in the context of: 1.5°C, 2°C.

But: 1.5°C is not a "safe limit" where there will be no climate impact below it. Risks generally increase as temperature rises.

14. 2024 Global Temperature Record

2024 was recorded as an extremely hot year in the modern instrumental record. According to WMO's 2025 assessment, 2024 was about 1.55 ± 0.13°C above the pre-industrial 1850–1900 average and it was recorded among the hottest or hottest years.

15. Situation of 2025

According to WMO's State of the Global Climate 2025 assessment:

• 2015–2025 remained the 11 hottest years on record continuously.
• 2025 was about 1.43°C above the 1850–1900 average.
• 2025 was the second or third hottest year.

16. Global Warming and Heat Waves

A major consequence of global warming is an increase in the risk of extreme heat. As temperature rises: more hot days, more hot nights, longer heatwaves, more extreme temperature events can become more likely in many regions.

Important: Global warming does not mean equal temperature increase everywhere. Regional warming can be different.

17. Polar Amplification

Warming in polar regions can be faster than the global average. Especially Arctic amplification is an important concept.

Main feedback: Warming → Snow/Ice loss → Albedo decline → Solar absorption increase → Further warming

18. Impact on Glaciers

Global warming can affect glacier mass balance.

Mass Balance: Accumulation – Ablation

If over a long period: Ablation > Accumulation, then glacier retreat can occur.

Important: Glacier retreat = Not just a direct result of temperature, but precipitation, snow accumulation, radiation etc. also play a role.

19. Ice Sheets

The two most important continental ice sheets: Greenland Ice Sheet, Antarctic Ice Sheet. Their mass loss can contribute significantly to sea-level rise in the long term.

20. Ocean Warming

Oceans absorb a very large part of the Earth's extra heat. From this: marine heatwaves, coral stress, changes in marine ecology, thermal expansion, sea-level rise can be linked.

21. Ocean Acidification

When oceans absorb atmospheric CO2, seawater chemistry changes.

Simple Process: CO2 + H2O → Carbonic acid system; From this, the pH of seawater moves in the direction of decreasing.

Important: Ocean acidification = Not literally the ocean becoming acid. It is the process of seawater moving towards less alkaline / more acidic direction.

22. Coral Bleaching

The increased temperature of the sea is a major stress factor for coral bleaching. Under extreme thermal stress, corals can lose their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae).

Result: Coral loses colour → bleaching; if stress persists for a long time, coral mortality can occur.

23. Two Major Thermal/Ice Components of Sea-Level Rise

1. Thermal Expansion: Seawater expands when heated.
2. Land Ice Loss: Mass loss from glaciers, Greenland Ice Sheet, Antarctic Ice Sheet can increase water in the sea.

RAS Trap: Sea-ice melting ≠ land-ice melting; their sea-level implications are different.

24. Tipping Points

Tipping Point: Such a situation where after crossing a threshold, some component of the climate system can move towards relatively rapid or self-reinforcing change.

Identified Possible Systems: Greenland Ice Sheet, West Antarctic Ice Sheet, AMOC, tropical forests, permafrost systems.

Caution: The exact threshold of every tipping point is not certain; scientific uncertainty remains.

25. AMOC

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: An ocean circulation system related to large-scale redistribution of heat and water in the Atlantic Ocean. It has a significant impact on climate.

Trap: AMOC = Not Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream is an important component of AMOC, but the two are not completely the same.

26. Specific Example of Climate Feedback

Water Vapour Feedback: Temperature rises: Warming → Evaporation ↑ → Atmospheric water vapour ↑ → Greenhouse effect ↑ → Further warming; This is a positive feedback.

27. Black Carbon and Warming

Black Carbon: A particulate pollutant formed from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. It can absorb solar radiation.

When deposited on snow/ice: Albedo ↓ → Absorption ↑ → Melting ↑ can occur.

28. Methane and Short-Term Warming

Methane's atmospheric lifetime is shorter than CO2, but its warming effect per unit mass is higher. Therefore, methane emission reduction can have a significant impact on the relatively short-term warming rate.

29. Socio-Economic Effects of Global Warming

Agriculture: heat stress, yield variability, water demand, pest pressure

Water Resources: changes in glacier-fed systems, evaporation, changes in drought/flood risk

Health: heat illness, vector-borne diseases, air-quality interactions

Coastal Areas: sea-level rise, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion

Economy: infrastructure damage, productivity losses, disaster costs, adaptation expenditure

30. Major Angles of Global Warming on India

Major possible effects in the context of India: extreme heat, monsoon variability, Himalayan cryosphere change, sea-level rise, coastal risk, agricultural productivity, water availability, heat stress.

Rajasthan Special Angle: In arid/semi-arid regions like Rajasthan: Heat + Water Stress + Evaporative Demand + Agricultural Vulnerability creates an important combined exam angle.

31. Global Warming → Climate Extremes

The effect of global warming is not limited to average temperature only. As temperature rises, the atmosphere can hold more moisture, which in some situations can increase the intensity of heavy precipitation events.

On the other hand: High temperature + dry conditions → drought/fire-weather risk can also increase.

Meaning, in the same warming world: Flood risk and drought risk can both increase through different mechanisms.

32. Climate Attribution

Attribution: The scientific assessment of how much role climate change played in any observed climate event.

Examples: How much did the probability of a heatwave increase? How much did human influence contribute to observed warming?

This is a different scientific process from merely saying "the event happened, so climate change happened".

33. Current Global Indicators

Greenhouse gas concentrations reaching record levels in 2024 and the series of continuously record hot years until 2025 have made the ongoing nature of global warming clear. According to WMO, in 2024 CO2 concentration was 423.9 ppm and in 2025 global temperature was about 1.43°C above 1850–1900.

34. Most Important Comparison

35. RPSC Fact Traps

1. Global warming and climate change are exactly the same
2. Greenhouse effect is naturally harmful
3. Net Zero means all emissions = zero
4. Black carbon is a greenhouse gas
5. AMOC and Gulf Stream are exactly the same
6. The effect of sea ice melt and land ice melt is the same
7. Ocean acidification means the ocean becoming completely acidic
8. One year crossing 1.5°C proves permanent failure of the Paris goal
9. Global warming causes equal temperature increase in every region
10. Carbon budget tells about only one year's emissions
11. All exact thresholds of tipping points are certainly known
12. Black carbon has no effect on climate
13. Oceans only affect sea level, not climate
14. Heatwave and global warming are separate unrelated events
15. Carbon sink means absolutely no carbon emission at all

36. One-Liner Revision Bank

1. Global warming = Long-term increase in global average temperature.
2. Climate change is a broader concept than global warming.
3. Earth's energy imbalance is the basic physical basis of warming.
4. CO2 is the major long-lived greenhouse gas of modern anthropogenic warming.
5. GWP compares the warming capacity of gases.
6. Carbon budget is related to cumulative CO2 emissions.
7. Net zero ≠ zero gross emissions.
8. Ocean heat content is an important indicator of global warming.
9. Thermal expansion is one cause of sea-level rise.
10. Land-ice loss contributes to sea-level rise.
11. The difference between sea ice and land ice is extremely important.
12. Ice-albedo feedback is a positive feedback.
13. Arctic amplification is an important example of polar warming.
14. Ocean acidification is related to CO2 uptake.
15. Thermal stress is an important factor in coral bleaching.
16. Black carbon is not a greenhouse gas, but a climate-forcing pollutant.
17. AMOC is a large-scale circulation system of the Atlantic Ocean.
18. Attribution is the scientific assessment of the role of climate change in a climate event.
19. Carbon sink does net carbon uptake.
20. 2024 was among the extremely hot record years.
21. 2015–2025 remained the 11 hottest years on record continuously.
22. 2025 was about 1.43°C above the pre-industrial average.

A.47 — Environmental Issues | Part-5: Ozone Depletion

1. What is Ozone?

Ozone (O3) is a triatomic form of oxygen (having three oxygen atoms).

The effect of ozone depends on which layer of the atmosphere it is in.

2. Stratospheric and Tropospheric Ozone

This is the most important exam difference.

Remember: O3 above → Protective; O3 below → Pollutant

3. Where is the Ozone Layer?

The most significant concentration of ozone is in the Stratosphere. The stratosphere is located between about 10–50 km altitude.

The maximum concentration of ozone is generally found between about 15–35 km.

RPSC Trap: The ozone layer is not a solid/continuous thick sheet around the Earth. It is a region of relatively higher concentration of ozone in the atmosphere.

4. Importance of Ozone

Stratospheric ozone absorbs a large part of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. Especially: absorption of UV-B, UV-C is important. This protects life on Earth from harmful UV exposure.

5. Types of UV Radiation

Important: The special concern from ozone depletion is about increased surface exposure of UV-B.

6. Natural Ozone Formation

The Sun's UV radiation can break O2 molecules: O2 + UV → O + O

Then: O + O2 → O3; In this way ozone is formed in the stratosphere.

7. Natural Ozone Destruction

Ozone is continuously formed and destroyed.

Simple Process: O3 + UV → O2 + O; Then oxygen atoms can react with other molecules. From this, a dynamic balance of ozone is naturally maintained.

8. Ozone-Depleting Substances — ODS

Such substances that contribute to chemical processes that damage stratospheric ozone are called Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS).

Major Examples: CFCs, Halons, Carbon tetrachloride, Methyl chloroform, Methyl bromide, some HCFCs.

9. CFCs

CFC — Chlorofluorocarbon: Historically these were used in: refrigeration, air-conditioning, aerosol propellants, foam production etc.

Their problem is that they can remain relatively stable in the atmosphere and after reaching the stratosphere, they can break down by UV radiation to produce chlorine radicals.

10. Catalytic Cycle of Chlorine

This is a very important scientific fact.

UV radiation: CFC → chlorine radical; Then chlorine can react with ozone.

Simplified Cycle: Cl + O3 → ClO + O2; Then: ClO + O → Cl + O2

Total Effect: O3 + O → 2O2

Most Important: Chlorine itself can be released again in this cycle. Therefore, one chlorine atom can play a catalytic role in the destruction of many ozone molecules.

11. Importance of Bromine

Compounds like Halons and methyl bromide can provide bromine. Bromine can be a very effective catalytic agent in stratospheric ozone destruction.

RPSC Trap: Ozone depletion is not only a problem of chlorine. Both Chlorine + Bromine chemistry are important.

12. Polar Stratospheric Clouds — PSCs

Polar Stratospheric Clouds play an important role in Antarctic ozone depletion. They can form in the stratosphere at very low temperatures.

On their surface, such chemical reactions are promoted by which relatively inactive chlorine compounds can be converted into reactive forms.

13. Antarctic Ozone Hole

The event of extreme depletion of stratospheric ozone over Antarctica in spring season is generally called Antarctic Ozone Hole.

It is not a permanent "hole". It is a seasonal region of severely depleted ozone.

14. Why does the Antarctic Ozone Hole form?

Main Sequence: Antarctic winter → Extreme cold → PSCs → chlorine/bromine activation → spring sunlight → rapid catalytic ozone destruction

Therefore: Cold + PSCs + halogen chemistry + sunlight — is the key to understanding Antarctic ozone depletion.

15. Antarctic Vortex

Polar Vortex: A strong circumpolar circulation can form over the Antarctic region in winter. It keeps the air relatively isolated.

Its importance is related to: cold conditions supporting PSC formation, confinement of chemically processed air.

16. Discovery of the Ozone Hole

Important scientists associated with the identification of Antarctic seasonal depletion of ozone: Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner, Jonathan Shanklin

Scientists of the British Antarctic Survey published important observational evidence of Antarctic ozone decline in the 1980s.

Important Year: 1985 — Famous Nature paper on Antarctic ozone hole was published.

17. Nobel Prize and Ozone Science

1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Awarded to Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland for their work on atmospheric chemistry and especially ozone formation/destruction.

RPSC Trap: This prize was not given for creating the Montreal Protocol; it was given for their contribution to scientific atmospheric ozone chemistry.

18. Vienna Convention

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: Adoption — 1985

It created a framework for international cooperation for ozone layer protection.

Important: Vienna Convention is mainly a framework convention.

19. Montreal Protocol

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: Adoption — 16 September 1987; Place — Montreal, Canada

It is the major global system regulating the production and consumption of ODS.

Effective: 1 January 1989

20. World Ozone Day

16 September — International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer

This day commemorates the adoption of the Montreal Protocol.

RPSC Super Trap: 16 September → Ozone Day

21. Why is the Montreal Protocol Important?

It created a global regulatory framework to phase out/reduce the production/consumption of: CFCs, Halons, other ODS.

It is considered one of the most successful systems of international environmental cooperation.

22. Kigali Amendment

Kigali Amendment: Adoption — 2016

Its main connection is with: HFCs — Hydrofluorocarbons phase-down.

Most Important Difference: Montreal Protocol → ODS; Kigali Amendment → HFC phase-down

23. Special Importance of HFCs

Since HFCs do not contain chlorine, they are not ozone-depleting like CFCs for the ozone layer. But many HFCs are: Powerful greenhouse gases.

Therefore, the Kigali Amendment has a climate benefit along with ozone protection.

24. CFC → HCFC → HFC

This sequence is very important.

Trap: HFC is not ozone-depleting = climate-friendly in every situation — this is wrong. Many HFCs are powerful greenhouse gases.

25. Montreal Protocol and Climate Change

The original objective of the Montreal Protocol is ozone protection. But due to ODS phase-out, a big climate benefit has also been obtained in greenhouse gas emissions.

This is why the Montreal Protocol should also be read in the context of ozone + climate co-benefit.

26. Ozone Layer Recovery

Due to the Montreal Protocol, ODS concentrations have decreased and progress has been made towards ozone layer recovery.

According to the WMO/UNEP Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2022, if current policies continue, the ozone layer is likely to return to about the 1980 level globally:

• About 2040 — Global average
• About 2045 — Arctic
• About 2066 — Antarctic

Very Important: These are expected recovery timelines, not exact guarantee dates.

27. What Ozone Recovery Does Not Mean?

Ozone recovery does not mean that: the ozone hole has disappeared immediately; ozone will remain the same every year; climate change has ended; UV risk has become zero.

It is a long-term atmospheric recovery process.

28. Ozone and Human Health

If stratospheric ozone decreases and surface UV-B exposure increases, risks can increase: skin cancer, cataracts, eye damage, immune-system effects.

29. Ozone and Ecosystems

Increased UV-B can affect: phytoplankton, terrestrial plants, aquatic ecosystems, developmental processes of some sensitive organisms.

30. Ozone and Agriculture

Excessive UV-B can affect in some crops: photosynthetic processes, growth, development, yield. The sensitivity of crops varies according to species and variety.

31. Difference between Ozone Depletion and Global Warming

But there is also a relationship: Some ODS are themselves powerful greenhouse gases and ozone protection policies have also benefited the climate.

32. Ozone Hole and Climate Change

This is an extremely difficult conceptual point: Ozone depletion and global warming are two different problems, but they can be interrelated through atmospheric chemistry and radiative processes.

Therefore: Ozone hole = Not another name for global warming.

33. Latest Scientific Status

According to the WMO/UNEP Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2022, clear progress has been made towards ozone recovery due to compliance with the Montreal Protocol, and based on current policies, most of the ozone layer is likely to return to around the 1980 level by the middle of the 21st century.

Also, HFC phase-down under the Kigali Amendment makes an additional contribution to reducing climate warming.

34. India's Ozone Programme

In work related to the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances in India: Ozone Cell, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has an important role.

India is involved in national efforts related to the implementation of the Montreal Protocol.

35. Important Dates

36. Super Fact Table

37. Most Dangerous Fact Traps for RPSC

1. All ozone is harmful to the Earth
2. Stratospheric ozone is pollution
3. Tropospheric ozone is protective
4. Ozone hole = Real physical hole in the Earth's atmosphere
5. Montreal Protocol happened in 1992
6. Vienna Convention happened in 1987
7. Kigali Amendment is for CFC phase-out
8. HFCs are ozone-depleting substances
9. Ozone depletion and global warming are the same problem
10. Ozone recovery means the ozone hole disappearing immediately
11. UV-A is the main health concern of ozone depletion
12. Antarctic ozone hole remains the same throughout the year
13. Chlorine destroys ozone in the ratio of only one molecule
14. Bromine has no role in ozone chemistry
15. Montreal Protocol has no positive impact on climate
16. Ozone Day — 5 June
17. 1995 Nobel Prize was only for the Montreal Protocol
18. HFCs are safe for ozone, so all HFCs are also safe for climate

38. One-Liner Revision Bank

1. Ozone = O3.
2. Protective ozone is mainly in the stratosphere.
3. Tropospheric ozone is an important air pollutant.
4. CFCs are important ODS in ozone depletion.
5. Chlorine chemistry can be activated in the stratosphere from CFCs.
6. Halons can be important sources of bromine.
7. PSCs are important in the Antarctic ozone hole.
8. Antarctic ozone depletion can intensify in spring.
9. Vienna Convention — 1985.
10. Montreal Protocol — 1987.
11. Montreal Protocol effective — 1989.
12. Ozone Day — 16 September.
13. Kigali Amendment — 2016.
14. Kigali Amendment — HFC phase-down.
15. HFCs are not ozone-depleting, but many are powerful greenhouse gases.
16. 1995 Nobel Chemistry — Crutzen, Molina, Rowland.
17. Ozone hole is not a permanent physical hole.
18. Ozone depletion and global warming are different environmental issues.
19. Montreal Protocol achieved significant global success in ozone protection.
20. Progress is being made towards ozone recovery under current policies.
21. Estimated global recovery — about 2040.
22. Arctic recovery — about 2045.
23. Antarctic recovery — about 2066.
24. Reference of ozone recovery — about 1980 level.

A.47 — Basic Difference of All Five Environmental Issues

Remember all five in one line: Land → Forest → Climate → Temperature → Ozone

A.48 — Major International Organizations and Conferences Related to Environmental Issues

Part-1: First, the Complete Organization Map

Important: Do not understand UNEP, IPCC, UNFCCC, UNCCD, CBD and Montreal Protocol as the same type of "organization". Among these, some are United Nations bodies, some are scientific bodies, and some are international treaty systems.

Part-2: UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

Establishment: 1972

Basis: After the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, established through UN General Assembly Resolution 2997 (XXVII).

Headquarters: Nairobi, Kenya

Membership: UNEP itself does not maintain a separate member list like a treaty; UNEP works with all 193 UN Member States. UNEA's membership is of all 193 UN member countries.

Current Head: Inger Andersen — Executive Director; she is also UN Under-Secretary-General.

Main Functions:

• Monitoring of global environment
• Environmental science
• Pollution control
• Climate
• Nature and biodiversity
• Land degradation
• Environmental law and policy
• Cooperation in international environmental agreements
• Environmental reports and assessment

UNEP is considered the major UN authority for the global environment and works on the triple planetary crisis of climate change, nature/biodiversity/land loss, and pollution/waste.

Part-3: UNEA — United Nations Environment Assembly

Establishment: 2014; UNEP Governing Council was converted into the UN Environment Assembly with universal membership.

Members: 193 UN Member States

Meetings: Generally every two years.

Functions:

• Sets the global environmental agenda
• Adopts resolutions
• Gives strategic guidance to UNEP
• Gives policy direction on emerging environmental problems.

Major Regular Sessions of UNEA So Far:

UNEP's official list confirms these sessions from UNEA-1 to UNEA-7.

UNEA-7 — Latest Held: Place: Nairobi, Kenya; Date: 8-12 December 2025; Theme: "Advancing sustainable solutions for a resilient planet"

Main Outcome: In UNEA-7: 11 resolutions, 3 decisions, Ministerial Declaration were adopted.

Major Resolutions: Especially:

1. Climate resilience of coral reefs
2. Sustainable solutions through sport
3. Minerals and metals management
4. Sargassum seaweed blooms
5. Cooperation in multilateral environmental agreements
6. Youth participation/environmental education
7. Global management of wildfires
8. Chemicals and waste
9. Environmental sustainability of AI
10. Glaciers and broader cryosphere
11. Antimicrobial resistance

Exam Trap: UNEA-7 = 2025, Nairobi; UNEA-8 = 2027, Nairobi — upcoming session

Part-4: UNCCD

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

Main Subject: Desertification + Land Degradation + Drought

Establishment/Adoption: 1994; Effective: 26 December 1996; Headquarters: Bonn, Germany

Parties: 197 Parties (196 countries + European Union); UNCCD itself describes it as a Convention with 197 Parties.

Current Executive Secretary: Yasmine Fouad — Egypt; she replaced Ibrahim Thiaw.

UNCCD COP: The Conference of the Parties of UNCCD is its main decision-making body. So far: COP-1 to COP-17, i.e., 17 regular COP sessions by 2026.

Latest Held — UNCCD COP17: Place: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Date: 17–28 August 2026; Theme: "Restoring Land. Restoring Hope."; Participants: 197 Parties of UNCCD.

Major Themes of COP17:

1. Land Restoration: Emphasis on restoring land.
2. Drought: Emphasis on resilience, finance, preparedness, risk management for drought.
3. Rangelands: Role of pastures and pastoral communities.
4. Sand and Dust Storms: Risks associated with sand and dust storms.
5. 2018–2030 Strategic Framework: Review of its implementation.
6. Future Strategic Framework: Work on the future strategic direction of the Convention.
7. Finance: Innovative financial mechanisms for land restoration and drought resilience.

In the official COP17 agenda, drought, rangelands, pastoralists, sand and dust storms, and the 2018–2030 Strategic Framework were prominent issues.

UNCCD COP16 — Very Important: Place: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Date: 2–13 December 2024; Theme: Our Land. Our Future.

Special Importance: It was held on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of UNCCD and according to UNCCD, it was the largest UN land conference until then.

Major Issues: Drought resilience, Land restoration, Land degradation, Drought finance, Forced migration, Security, Land tenure, Rangelands, Pastoralists, Sand and dust storms.

Important Initiatives: International Drought Resilience Observatory (IDRO); Global Drought Atlas launch/related work remained on the agenda of COP16.

Part-5: UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Adoption: 1992 — Rio Earth Summit; Effective: 21 March 1994; Parties: 198 (197 States + European Union); Secretariat: Bonn, Germany

Current Executive Secretary: Simon Stiell — Grenada; appointed by the UN Secretary-General in 2022 and reappointed in June 2025 for a second three-year term.

Basic Objective of UNFCCC: To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at such a level that dangerous anthropogenic interference in the climate system is prevented.

Three Most Important Agreements under UNFCCC:

1. UNFCCC — 1992
2. Kyoto Protocol — 1997
3. Paris Agreement — 2015

What is COP? COP = Conference of the Parties; the highest decision-making conference of the Parties of UNFCCC; generally held every year.

How many COPs so far? By 2026: COP30 — held in 2025; therefore COP1 to COP30 = 30 regular COP sessions have been completed. COP31 — upcoming in 2026.

COP30 — Latest Held: Place: Belém, Brazil; Date: 10–21 November 2025; It was especially important because it was a climate COP held in the Amazon region.

Major Outcomes: In the official outcome package of COP30: Mutirão decision, decisions related to Global Stocktake, Just Transition Work Programme, decisions related to Climate finance, issues related to Paris Agreement Article 9 etc. were included.

Baku → Belém: COP29 and COP30 Presidencies prepared the: Baku to Belém Roadmap to 1.3T. Its objective was to provide a roadmap towards mobilizing climate finance on a large scale for developing countries.

COP29 — Very Important RAS Current Fact: Place: Baku, Azerbaijan; Year: 2024

Most Important Decision: New Collective Quantified Goal — NCQG; For developing countries: target of at least USD 300 billion per year by 2035.

Also, all actors were called upon to contribute to scaling up climate finance to: USD 1.3 trillion per year by 2035.

RPSC Trap: 300 billion ≠ 1.3 trillion; both are different figures and different contexts.

COP31 — Upcoming: Place: Antalya, Türkiye; Date: 9–20 November 2026; meaning COP31 had not been held until 15 September 2026.

Part-6: IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Establishment: 1988; Who established it? Jointly: UNEP + WMO

Objective: To scientifically review on climate change: scientific assessment, impacts, risks, adaptation, mitigation.

Members: 195 member governments; Current Chair: Jim Skea — United Kingdom

Most Important Thing about IPCC: IPCC itself is not an original research laboratory. It does: Assessment + Synthesis of published scientific literature.

Three Working Groups:

In addition: TFI — Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Major Assessment Cycles of IPCC:

Latest major completed assessment: AR6 Synthesis Report — 2023

IPCC AR7 — Current: In 2025, IPCC advanced work on AR7 Working Group outlines.

IPCC 62nd Session: 24–28 February 2025; Place: Hangzhou, China; In it, 195 governments agreed on the report outlines of the three Working Groups of AR7 and the outlines of the Carbon Dioxide Removal/CCUS methodology report.

63rd Session: 27–30 October 2025 — Lima, Peru; It was important for advancing the AR7 workplan.

Part-7: WMO

World Meteorological Organization

Establishment: 1950; Became UN specialized agency: 1951; Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland; Members: 193 Members

Current President: Dr Abdulla Al Mandous — UAE; his four-year term began in 2023.

Current Secretary-General: Prof. Celeste Saulo — Argentina; she assumed office on 1 January 2024 and is the first woman Secretary-General of WMO.

Functions of WMO: Meteorology, climate monitoring, hydrology, weather forecasting, greenhouse gases, climate indicators, early warning systems, extreme weather data, global meteorological cooperation

Important Reports of WMO: State of the Global Climate — This is a very important current source for RAS. Greenhouse Gas Bulletin — We get assessment of atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4, N2O etc.

Latest WMO climate assessment: State of the Global Climate 2025 — According to it: 2015–2025 = 11 hottest years on record; 2025 ≈ 1.43°C above 1850–1900; 2025 second or third hottest year. This is a very important current fact for the climate/global warming chapter.

Part-8: Montreal Protocol / Ozone Regime

Here a very important conceptual correction: Montreal Protocol is not an "organization" but an international environmental treaty regime. For its implementation: Ozone Secretariat is an important institution.

Establishment: 1991; Current Executive Secretary: Megumi Seki Nakamura — Japan; Headquarters: Nairobi, Kenya

Main Functions: Vienna Convention support, Montreal Protocol implementation, ODS phase-out, Parties meetings, scientific/technical assessments, compliance system, institutional support in Multilateral Fund coordination

Montreal Protocol: Adopted: 16 September 1987; Effective: 1 January 1989

Objective: To control/phase-out ODS — CFCs, Halons, Carbon tetrachloride, Methyl chloroform, etc.

Meetings of Montreal Protocol:

Latest completed — MOP37: Place: Nairobi, Kenya; Date: 3–7 November 2025; It was the 37th Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol.

Major Issue: For 2027–2029: agreement on the Terms of Reference of the study for Multilateral Fund replenishment was an important outcome. Under this, issues like: Article 5 developing countries, HFC phase-down, low-volume consuming countries, regional atmospheric monitoring were included.

MOP38 — Upcoming: Place: Kigali, Rwanda; Date: 2–6 November 2026

Most Important: MOP37 = Nairobi, 2025; MOP38 = Kigali, Rwanda, 2026

Kigali Amendment: Adopted: 2016; Main Subject: HFC phase-down; It is important for both ozone and climate.

Part-9: CBD

Convention on Biological Diversity — It directly connects to deforestation, ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss in our environmental issues chapter.

Adopted: 1992 — Rio Earth Summit; Effective: 1993; Secretariat: Montreal, Canada

Current Executive Secretary: Astrid Schomaker — Germany; she assumed office on 1 July 2024.

Main Subjects: biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, genetic resources, benefit sharing, ecosystems, species, protected areas

CBD COP — Latest completed — COP16: It started in Cali, Colombia in 2024, but due to unresolved issues, the resumed session was completed in Rome, Italy in February 2025.

COP17 — Upcoming: 19–30 October 2026; Yerevan, Armenia

Great Importance of COP17: It will conduct: First Global Review of Collective Progress on the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).

Part-10: FAO and Forests

Food and Agriculture Organization — FAO is not directly a climate treaty body, but it is a very important data source for forests and deforestation.

Establishment: 1945; Headquarters: Rome, Italy

Forest Resources Assessment: FAO's: Global Forest Resources Assessment — FRA is the most important official global assessment of the world's forests.

Latest: FRA 2025 — In it: assessment of forest resources and trends from 1990–2025 was done.

According to FRA 2025, Global deforestation rate:

• 1990–2000 → 17.6 million ha/year
• 2000–2015 → 13.6 million ha/year
• 2015–2025 → 10.9 million ha/year

Meaning, the deforestation rate has declined, but forest pressure has not ended.

Very Important RAS Fact: FRA 2025 = Global forest assessment based on official national data.

Part-11: How to Remember All These Together?

Subject → Institution → Major System

• Desertification: UNCCD → COP → Land Degradation / Drought / LDN
• Deforestation: FAO → FRA; UNFCCC → REDD+; CBD → Biodiversity
• Climate Change: UNFCCC → COP → Paris Agreement
• Global Warming: IPCC → Scientific Assessment; WMO → Climate observations/data
• Ozone Depletion: UNEP Ozone Secretariat → Montreal Protocol → MOP

Part-12: Most Important Conferences at a Glance

13. Rajasthan's Climate Policies & Schemes

13.1. Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC)

Rajasthan's SAPCC guides the state's climate strategy:

• Specific strategies to tackle desertification
• Focus on water resources management
• Climate-resilient strategies for agriculture and livestock
• Afforestation and social forestry

13.2. Climate Change Adaptation Plan (2025-2030)

• 5-year adaptation plan
• Aligned with Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)
• Centre of Excellence on Climate Change – ₹150 crore
• Plan to plant 10 crore trees

13.3. IIT Jodhpur – RSPCB MoU

• MoU between IIT Jodhpur and Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB)
• Objective: Strengthen climate resilience and environmental governance
• Activities: Advanced climate and pollution modeling, early warning systems, adaptation strategies for water resources, agriculture, public health, urban governance

13.4. Other State Initiatives

• Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan – Water harvesting, community participation
• Rajasthan Circular Economy Incentive Scheme-2025 – Promote Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
• Green Credit Scheme – For enterprises and urban bodies – renewable energy, water conservation, waste management, pollution control
• 15-year Vehicle Scrappage Policy – Scrapping old vehicles

14. Rajasthan's Green Budget 2025-26

Rajasthan's first Green Budget:

Parameter	Details
Total Green Expenditure	₹27,854 crore
% of GDP	11.34%
Key Sectors	Renewable energy, circular economy, climate resilience, green development

15. Challenges & Future Direction

⚠️ Challenges

Global:

• Insufficient pace of emissions reduction
• Lack of climate finance (developed countries' commitments incomplete)
• Dependence on fossil fuels
• Geopolitical tensions

India:

• Dependence on coal (production and consumption)
• Decline in CCPI ranking
• High vulnerability to climate change
• Urban pollution (air quality)
• Access to clean energy in rural areas

Rajasthan:

• Water crisis – one of the driest states
• Risk of desertification
• Dependence on agriculture – highly impacted by climate change
• Declining forest cover

✅ Future Direction

Global:

• Implementation of COP30 (2025) 56 decisions
• Mobilize $1.3 trillion climate finance
• Implementation Era of Paris Agreement (from 2026)
• Operationalisation of Article 6 carbon markets

India:

• 2035 NDC Targets: 47% emissions intensity reduction, 60% non-fossil capacity
• Net-Zero 2070: CCUS, afforestation, green hydrogen
• SHANTI Act – private investment in nuclear energy
• 500 GW renewable energy by 2030
• 5 MTPA green hydrogen by 2030

Rajasthan:

• Green Budget – ₹27,854 crore
• 40,000 MW solar energy (by 2030)
• Centre of Excellence on Climate Change – ₹150 crore
• Plant 10 crore trees
• Green Hydrogen Valley (Barmer/Jaisalmer)

🔑 Key Takeaway: Climate change is humanity's biggest challenge. India is committed to tackling it through NDC 2026, Net-Zero 2070, Green Hydrogen, 500 GW renewable energy. Rajasthan is among the leading states with Green Budget, 40,000 MW solar, Green Hydrogen Valley.

16. Glossary

IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

AR6 – IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report (2023)

UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)

NDC – Nationally Determined Contribution

Net-Zero – Zero carbon emissions (balance of emissions and absorption)

CCPI – Climate Change Performance Index

GHG – Greenhouse Gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, F-gases)

COP – Conference of Parties

CBDR – Common But Differentiated Responsibilities

Loss & Damage – Loss and damage from climate change

Just Transition – Supporting workers and communities in climate action

CCUS – Carbon Capture, Utilization & Storage

NAPCC – National Action Plan on Climate Change

SAPCC – State Action Plan on Climate Change

MoEFCC – Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change